News

CLRA Welcomes Federal-Alberta Energy Agreement And Pathway For Major Pipeline Infrastructure
CLRA is encouraged by the memorandum of understanding (MOU) between Prime Minister Mark Carney and Alberta Premier Danielle Smith, which represents a significant step forward for Alberta’s construction industry. It signals the federal government’s commitment to building critical energy infrastructure that supports Canadian workers and our economy. The MOU establishes a clear pathway for a new pipeline to the west coast, with Alberta required to submit a formal proposal by July 1, 2026, for review through the newly established Major Projects Office. For CLRA members, this could mean one of Canada’s most significant pipeline projects in a generation – a line capable of moving one million barrels per day to Asian markets. But the pipeline is just the start. The agreement also supports the Pathways Alliance carbon capture project, which aims to become the world’s largest carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) network. Major transmission lines connecting Alberta, B.C. and Saskatchewan will be needed. Large-scale data center infrastructure is part of the framework. Long-term nuclear generation development is on the table to support an expanded low-carbon grid. Each of these represents significant construction opportunities for Alberta’s skilled trades. “This agreement shows that both levels of government understand what Alberta’s construction

Compulsory Remittance Requirement Breakdown
REMINDER – Upcoming Change to CLRA Remittances (Effective January 1, 2026) This notice is to remind you that the CLRA remittance schedule will be updated effective January 1, 2026. Please ensure the attached schedule is circulated to the appropriate individuals in your organization so they are prepared for this change. This schedule will also be posted to our website under the Resources tab for future reference. If you have any questions, please contact our office at 780-451-5444 or admin@clra.org

Building Alberta’s Workforce Together
For over 50 years, CLRA has brought contractors, owners and skilled trades together to build Alberta’s economy and strengthen our construction industry. Through strategic partnerships with government, educational institutions and industry leaders, we’re building the workforce Alberta needs – today and into the future. Our lead role in labour relations and workforce strategy is core to achieving our mandate to foster productive relationships between employers and unions, support policy that drives growth and help build a resilient, future-ready workforce. https://youtu.be/Cn6SDrETKcs What Drives Our Work Workforce Development: We champion innovative solutions to attract, train and retain skilled trades workers across Alberta, from apprenticeship programs to funding opportunities like the Workforce Development Trust and the Canada-Alberta Productivity Grant. Strategic Partnerships: By fostering collaboration between government, educational institutions, and the skilled trades, we create solutions that benefit the entire construction sector. Industry Leadership: We advocate for policies that support workforce growth, stable infrastructure investment, and a competitive future for Alberta’s unionized construction industry.

CLRA Holds Annual General Meeting
Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) held its Annual General Meeting on November 18th, 2025, bringing together members to review the past year’s accomplishments and chart the course for the year ahead. Honourable Joseph Schow, Minister of Jobs, Economy, Trade and Immigration, kicked things off, speaking about the shared commitment between government and CLRA to maintain a competitive and innovative construction industry across the province. The discussion highlighted how collaboration remains essential to meeting these objectives in an increasingly complex environment. A central theme emerged around the importance of government, CLRA and member companies working together to address the skilled worker shortage. Attendees recognized that coordinated efforts will be crucial to growing Alberta’s economy and ensuring the construction sector can meet rising demand. Following the business portion of the AGM, including the election of officers and directors, Lovey Sidhu, SkillPlan Director of Workforce, shared insights on new and innovative mentorship approaches designed to support workforce development in the construction sector. She emphasized the importance of harnessing advanced training systems that are aligned with the needs of the construction industry, regardless of changes in society or the economy. The meeting concluded with Lee Funke from Big Picture Public Affairs providing members with

2025 NCLRA Conference Highlights Workforce Strategy and Industry Collaboration
As host of the 2025 National Construction Labour Relations Alliance Conference in Calgary, CLRA Alberta welcomed industry leaders, government officials and workforce advocates from across Canada for two days of focused discussion on the future of skilled trades. After the first day proceedings for REOs, EBAs, AMCC contractors, union international representatives and industry stakeholders, the full conference opened with remarks from NCLRA Chair Tony Fanelli who emphasized the need for collaboration across provinces and sectors to meet growing labour demands. Alberta’s Minister of Advanced Education Myles McDougall followed with a clear call to action. He outlined how the Government of Alberta is investing in talent and challenged employer organizations to help attract youth to construction careers and support workforce development across regions. Updates were provided by a number of partner organizations, and attendees also heard from Ben Rainforth, Alberta’s Skilled Trades Youth Ambassador. Adam Legge from the Business Council of Alberta shared insights from “Laying the Foundation: Solving Labour Supply in the Skill Trades”, a report that highlights how reducing trade barriers and regulatory friction is key to solving labour supply challenges. His remarks reinforced the importance of policy alignment in enabling mobility and expanding opportunity for skilled workers. Corey

CLRA Supports New Government Initiative to Engage Skilled Trades Experts
Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) is supporting a new initiative launched by the Government of Alberta that invites trades professionals to help shape the future of skilled trades across the province. The initiative, called My Skilled Trades Network (MSTN), is a voluntary program designed to connect subject matter experts with government representatives. The goal is to ensure Alberta’s trades policies and programs are informed by the people who know the industry best: those working in it every day. “This is a timely and important opportunity for our contractors and trades professionals to share their knowledge and experience in a meaningful way,” says Joe McFadyen, President of CLRA. “Whether you’re a journeyperson, employer, instructor or active participant in the trades, this is your chance to share your expertise with government and help build a stronger future for Alberta’s workforce. We encourage our members and industry partners to consider applying and lending their voice to this important work.” Participants in MSTN may be asked to complete surveys, attend meetings or provide input on projects that influence policy and planning. If selected, you’ll become part of a growing network of professionals who are helping to bridge the gap between industry and government. Your

Nation-Building Projects Sure to Spark Discussion at Next Week’s NCLRA Conference in Calgary
Since the announcement of Canada’s new Major Projects Office (MPO), Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) is paying close attention to the list of nation building projects that are being released. Our member contractors are essential to Alberta’s economic growth and have a significant stake in seeing large-scale, long-term projects move forward to construction. Already, the Prime Minister has announced the first projects being referred to the MPO—representing more than $60 billion in investment and thousands of well-paying jobs. Premier Danielle Smith also announced that Alberta will be the lead proponent for a West Coast pipeline application. “While promising, and clearly a priority for the federal government, the MPO and its ambitious timeline will require extensive collaboration with provinces, industry, communities, and those representing skilled trades workers,” said Joe McFadyen, President of CLRA. CLRA looks forward to supporting these critical infrastructure projects, knowing our members have the skilled workforce and expertise to deliver. Industry groups like the Business Council of Alberta have welcomed the first wave of projects, but BCA emphasized the need to dismantle policy and regulatory barriers to investment. The Canada West Foundation noted that defining what qualifies as “projects of national significance” will be a critical—and transparent—challenge. Canada’s plans for building our country’s critical infrastructure will

Building Canada Strong: Infrastructure That Works for Workers
Canada is laying the groundwork for a stronger, more resilient economy. Prime Minister Mark Carney has announced new federal trade and resilience measures focused on upgrading infrastructure and supporting workers across the country. These initiatives aim to strengthen supply chains, boost local economies and create high-quality jobs from coast to coast. The goal is clear: build smarter systems that help Canadian businesses compete, grow and rely less on any single trading partner. To support this transformation, the government has launched a $5 billion Strategic Response Fund to help tariff-exposed firms adapt, diversify and expand. This investment will protect key sectors and open new opportunities for growth. But this isn’t just about concrete and steel. It’s about people. The government is investing $450 million to retrain and upskill 50,000 workers through employer-led programs, wage subsidies and career counselling. Workers affected by global market shifts and U.S. tariffs will get the support they need to stay employed or transition into growing industries. New digital tools are also being introduced to help Canadians find jobs and training faster. A national online platform will connect workers with short courses by skill type and location. AI-powered job matching will make it easier to find roles

CLRA Welcomes Launch of Major Projects Office and Appointment of Dawn Farrell as CEO
Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) welcomes today’s announcement of the Major Projects Office (MPO), a positive move in advancing critical infrastructure and supporting Canada’s future. The creation of the MPO marks a shift in federal priorities and signals that the government is serious about improving how large-scale projects are approved and delivered. It also highlights the important role Alberta’s construction industry plays in building the infrastructure Canadians rely on. CLRA congratulates Dawn Farrell on her appointment as the MPO’s first Chief Executive Officer. Her leadership and extensive background in Canada’s energy sector make her a strong choice to lead this new office and work with industry to help move important projects forward. “Establishing the MPO in Calgary makes sense and reinforces Alberta’s central role in Canada’s infrastructure strategy. The city is home to a skilled workforce and a strong network of energy and construction expertise. Having the office in Calgary keeps it close to the industries and communities that are driving major development across Canada,“ said CLRA CEO, Joe McFadyen. While this is a strong start, there is still much work to do. The MPO must demonstrate it can fulfill its mandate by cutting delays, coordinating efforts and supporting projects

New Canada‑Alberta Productivity Grant
Starting this fall, CLRA members will be eligible to apply for the new Canada‑Alberta Productivity Grant (CAPG), which replaces the former Canada‑Alberta Job Grant. When the original program was cancelled, CLRA strongly advocated for an alternative, voicing our members’ concerns and urging government to reinstate a funding tool to support workforce training needs. We are pleased to see that this advocacy has helped bring forward the CAPG — a program designed to strengthen Alberta’s skilled workforce and improve productivity across our sector. Through the CAPG employers can access funding to: Cover up to 75% of training costs when hiring and training unemployed Albertans Receive up to 50% of training costs when upskilling existing staff Choose from full‑time, part‑time, online, in‑person, or hybrid training formats. Information sessions begin this week – learn more about eligibility, requirements, and how to prepare your application.

CLRA Members in On-Site’s Top 40 Contractors in Canada List
Five of CLRA’s members, PCL Construction, EllisDon, AECON, Bird Construction and Michels Canada, were included in this year’s Top 40 Contractors line-up by On-Site Magazine. Our members represent nearly half of the Top 10 companies on the list, with PCL Construction securing the number one spot due to their $11.3 billion in 2024 revenue. According to results from On-Site’s recent survey, the reported and cumulative revenue of the Top 10 firms alone was nearly $1 billion higher in 2024 than in 2023, a remarkable year-over-year surge. The industry continues to boom. Our members are navigating a complex landscape in Alberta right now, weathering economic fluctuation, workforce shortages, supply chain issues, high retirement rates – yet they consistently lead the construction sector in safety, training, and workforce development. CLRA will continue to advocate for Alberta’s construction employers as they build the infrastructure, careers, and communities of the province’s future. Read the full story here.

CLRA Congratulates Honorary NAIT Graduate, Trades Trailblazer Carol Moen
CLRA congratulates NAIT’s recent honorary Bachelor of Technology in Management recipient Carol Moen. Considered to be NAIT’s highest form of recognition, honorary degrees are awarded to those who have made exceptional contributions to their field, community, or society through a lifetime of service and a commitment to bettering the world. Carol is a prime example of someone who has done so in Alberta’s construction sphere. She spent decades building her engineering career in leadership positions with Dow Canada, followed by making history as the first female Registrar of the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Alberta. Two years after retirement, she found herself drawn back to the workforce – this time, as President and CEO for Women Building Futures (WBF), a non-profit dedicated to helping women achieve economic prosperity through trades training and mentorship. Over the next six years, Carol was instrumental to the growth and accomplishments of WBF. More than 1,000 women graduated from its programs during her tenure, gaining the support, technical expertise, and confidence they needed to enter careers in construction and other traditionally male-dominated industries. In 2023-24 alone, 284 women completed programming – the most in the organization’s history – and WBF continues to see

NCLRA and CLRA support Bill C-5: An Act to enact the Free Trade and Labour Mobility in Canada Act and the Building Canada Act
The National Construction Labour Relations Alliance of Canada (NCLRA) and Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) want to see the swift passage of Bill C-5: An Act to enact the Free Trade and Labour Mobility in Canada Act and the Building Canada Act. This legislation is a critical step toward strengthening the Canadian economy and supporting the nation’s skilled workforce at a time of ongoing geopolitical uncertainty. NCLRA and CLRA have long championed investments in infrastructure and policies that will unlock economic opportunities for Canadian workers and benefit families across the country. Internal trade barriers and regulatory hurdles for project approvals have cost the Canadian economy billions of dollars annually. “Canada’s construction workforce is ready to deliver — but we need governments to clear the path,” says Tony Fanelli, Chair of NCLRA. “Bill C-5 sets the foundation for seamless labour mobility and coordinated infrastructure delivery across provinces. It’s a decisive step toward eliminating costly inefficiencies and empowering the skilled trades to meet the demands of a changing world. This is the kind of legislation that puts people to work and gets critical projects moving.” NCLRA and CLRA will continue to support forward-thinking policies that allow major projects to proceed more efficiently,

Collective Bargaining with Building Trades Concludes: New agreements offer stability, certainty to trades, investors and government
Alberta construction employers and building trades unions have agreed to new collective agreements that preserve Alberta’s place as the most stable and competitive construction market in Canada. The new four-year agreements between Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) and the 16 affiliate unions of the Building Trades of Alberta (BTA) are the result of a collaborative and professional collective bargaining process that focused on preparing Alberta’s construction sector for nation-leading growth. The industry collaboration and resulting collective agreements have brought stability to the construction industry through to April 2029. “If you’re looking to build or invest in Canada, Alberta is the place to do it. Alberta has Canada’s most stable and collaborative labour market for the unionized skilled trades, with competitive jobs. Our employers are willing to invest in today’s workers and the youth of tomorrow. And our unionized labour force is dedicated to quality, safety and efficiency.” -Joe McFadyen, President of Construction Labour Relations Alberta Prior to the onset of bargaining, CLRA, the BTA and union leadership agreed to prioritize a streamlined and equitable bargaining process. A negotiations advisory council was created in August 2024, which was essential for early identification of common issues and principles for the unionized building

More Interprovincial Trade for Alberta
This week, Premier Danielle Smith and Ontario’s Premier Doug Ford signed a new Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) aimed at improving the free flow of goods, services, and workforce talent between provinces. American tariffs (including 50% on steel and aluminum) are spurring Canada to turn inward to boost its competitiveness via easier domestic trade. A central theme of the MOU was simplifying the requirements for regulated professions – including the skilled trades – allowing workers to fill labour shortages by enabling freer interprovincial movement. Greater mobility across borders will give more tradespeople the ability to move where the work is, without being delayed by lengthy approval processes. While details are still emerging on how specific trades will be impacted, this agreement is part of a broader, Canada-wide push to break down interprovincial trade barriers. Similar memoranda have already been signed with Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, and New Brunswick; collectively, these agreements can unlock up to $200 billion in economic potential. Another notable commitment made in the MOA was to explore the possibility of Ontario joining the New West Partnership Trade Agreement (NWPTA). The NWPTA – currently between Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and B.C. – automatically recognizes professionals and skilled

Building Big Things: What it Means For Alberta’s Construction Workforce
The Public Policy Forum’s recent report, Build Big Things, is a national call to action, and Alberta’s construction industry is at the heart of the opportunity. Canada is entering an era of historic infrastructure expansion to meet ambitious climate and economic goals. From clean energy projects to critical minerals and transportation infrastructure, the scale of what needs to be built is unprecedented. For Alberta’s unionized construction workforce, this represents both a challenge and a chance to lead. What’s Coming: Why It Matters Massive Build-Out Ahead To meet net-zero goals, Canada must double or triple electricity generation capacity. That means new hydro, nuclear, solar, wind, and transmission projects. Alberta’s strengths in energy construction make it a key player in this national transformation. Faster Approvals, Smarter Planning Bottlenecks in project permitting and regulatory approvals must be addressed. Provinces like B.C. and Nova Scotia are streamlining environmental assessments—cutting wait times and getting shovels in the ground sooner. Alberta must stay competitive by keeping project timelines efficient and predictable. Addressing Labour Supply Labour shortages remain a major barrier. Alberta’s unionized workforce offers a competitive advantage in skills training, safety, and productivity, but investment in recruiting and retaining tradespeople is more critical than ever. Indigenous

CLRA Hosts Panel Discussion on Attracting and Retaining Skilled Labour in Alberta
The Canadian construction industry has an aging workforce and in the coming decade will lose almost a quarter of its skilled workers to retirement. At the same time, forecasts indicate that – in the medium- to long-term – the industry will continue growing. To fill the vacancies left by retiring baby boomers and meet the demands of this anticipated growth, the industry will need to recruit and train thousands of new workers – sooner rather than later. CLRA believes intentional, collaborative conversations with our industry partners are crucial to addressing the skilled labour shortage. We were pleased to host a reception and panel discussion yesterday on Attracting and Retaining Skilled Labour in Alberta. Held at the QEII Building in downtown Edmonton, we welcomed government, education, training and industry representatives to connect over the shared issue of building Alberta’s skilled labour workforce. Panelists included Honourable Matt Jones, Minister of Jobs, Economy and Trade, Laura Jo Gunter, President and CEO of NAIT, Mike Holden, VP of Policy & Chief Economist with BCA, and CLRA President and CEO Joe McFadyen. Panelists spoke about the need for partnerships and collaboration, the increasing importance of technology in the trades, and what CLRA calls “seed vs.

CLRA Congratulates Sean Strickland on Appointment as Chair of Helmets to Hardhats Canada
Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA) extends its congratulations to Sean Strickland, Executive Director of Canada’s Building Trades Unions (CBTU), on his recent appointment as Chair of the Board of Directors for Helmets to Hardhats (H2H) Canada. Helmets to Hardhats is a vital national non-profit organization that connects Veterans, reservists, military family members, and Afghan interpreters with meaningful career opportunities in Canada’s unionized construction industry. The organization plays a key role in easing the transition to civilian life while helping to address the skilled labour needs of our sector. Sean brings a wealth of experience and leadership to the H2H Board. Through his work at CBTU, he has been a tireless advocate for the skilled trades and for strengthening the unionized construction workforce across Canada. We are confident his appointment will further elevate the mission of Helmets to Hardhats and support continued success for both Veterans and the broader construction industry. We also recognize and thank outgoing Chair Alex Loula for his years of dedicated service and leadership. His contributions have helped shape H2H into the impactful organization it is today. On behalf of CLRA and our members, we congratulate Sean on this well-deserved appointment and look forward to supporting Helmets

CLRA Donates $30,000 for New NAIT Bursaries
CLRA is supporting the training and development of tradespeople in Alberta through a set of new bursaries and grants for apprenticeship students at the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology (NAIT). CLRA is donating $30,000 for 60 bursaries and grants of $500 each that will be distributed by NAIT and awarded to students based on a demonstration of both academic and financial need. The bursaries will be available to first and second-period students in the Carpenter, Ironworker, Insulator, Millwright, Plumber, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Mechanic, Roofer Sheet Metal Worker, Steamfitter-Pipefitter, and Welder apprenticeship programs. There will be up to six awards available for each program, including grants for students from historically marginalized and excluded communities. Read the News Release.

CLRA Returning as Edmonton Elks Tailgate Presenting Partner
CLRA is pleased to announce that we are returning as the Edmonton Elks Tailgate Presenting Partner for the 2025 and 2026 seasons! The partnership extension is a display of our ongoing commitment to community and to attracting more people to work in the skilled trades. As the Elks’ Tailgate Presenting Partner, CLRA has an excellent opportunity to grow awareness about CLRA and promote the skilled trades to thousands of fans at every home game while showing our support for the Elks and the football community in Edmonton and northern Alberta. We are proud to continue this exciting and meaningful partnership! We hope you will join us at a tailgate party and in cheering on the Elks this season. Click here for the schedule Be sure to follow CLRA on Instagram, X, and LinkedIn for reminders and updates on the tailgates. And whether you are at Commonwealth Stadium or watching the game on television, look for CLRA’s in-stadium display ads and signage promoting workalbertatrades.org. Elks Football…Always Edmonton!

CLRA and WFDT Partners Support Trades Careers Program for Students
Construction Labour Relations Alberta (CLRA), in partnership with Building Trades of Alberta (BTA), presented a cheque for $35,000 to The Education Partnership Fund (TEPF) in Red Deer today. This donation will support TEPF’s Trades Careers Program which aims to expose hundreds of students every year to the skilled trades with hands-on experiences and learning opportunities. The financial contribution is on behalf of the Workforce Development Trust (WFDT), a shared effort of both CLRA and BTA to address the need to invest in programs that grow, train, and support Alberta’s construction workers. The WFDT is funded by construction contractors who contribute 2 cents for every hour worked by a skilled tradesperson under collective agreements through CLRA, BTA and the General Presidents Maintenance Committee (GPMC) to develop the next generation of skilled trades workers. TEPF’s Trades Careers Program focuses on giving students a head start by providing them with easily accessible courses in world class union training facilities and the necessary hands-on experience to begin a career in the trades. Approximately 100,000 students have been exposed to or benefited from this program to date. CLRA and its WFDT partners fully support any initiative that contributes to growth of the construction industry, including

Laying the Foundation for Alberta’s Construction Future
The Business Council of Alberta’s latest report, Laying the Foundation, delivers an urgent message that without bold, coordinated action, Alberta risks falling short on key infrastructure, energy, and economic goals. On May 7, CLRA will be hosting a panel discussion with the Minister of Jobs, Economy and Trade, the Business Council of Alberta, and NAIT to dig into these challenges and look at ways to chart a path forward. Key Insights from the Report include: Labour Shortages Are Escalating Alberta needs 27,700 new construction workers by 2027. Pressures come from an aging workforce, declining apprenticeship enrollment, and limited immigration pathways for tradespeople. Workforce Development Gaps Current training and apprenticeship systems aren’t keeping up. Barriers persist for youth, women, Indigenous people, and newcomers. Report calls for modular training, micro-credentials, and inclusive entry paths into trades. Misaligned Immigration Pathways Only ~2% of new immigrants enter construction trades in Alberta. Federal immigration streams prioritize academic credentials over practical skills. Alberta must develop targeted regional immigration strategies. Capital Flight and Project Risk Labour shortages and strained industrial relations could lead to project delays, Escalating costs and investment uncertainty in clean energy, housing, and infrastructure The Seed vs. Sod Debate: Homegrown vs. Imported Talent CLRA

Canada: Construction and Maintenance Looking Forward
Canada: Construction and Maintenance Looking Forward, a new report by BuildForce Canada, offers a detailed analysis of construction activity and labour market dynamics across the country for the decade ahead. It draws on BuildForce’s proprietary labour market information system, which combines input from industry stakeholders, government data, and economic modelling. We summarized some of the findings below. In Alberta, the construction sector is expected to experience a significant short-term surge through 2024 into 2025, driven by major infrastructure investments such as the Calgary and Edmonton LRT expansions, new gas-fired power plants, petrochemical developments, and a growing number of renewable energy projects. As a result, construction employment was anticipated to grow by 3,700 workers – or 2.4% – in 2024 alone. Beyond 2025, activity is projected to plateau slightly as these major projects wrap up. Even so, the non-residential sector is expected to remain resilient, with continued demand in industrial construction and maintenance providing a degree of stability. The residential construction sector, meanwhile, is likely to see fluctuations tied to interest rates and housing affordability. While growth may slow in the short term, modest gains are possible in the latter part of the decade. Labour market challenges are expected to intensify

Untapped Potential: Driving Canadian Prosperity Through Natural Resources
Business Councils in the western provinces have published a list of policy recommendations ahead of the federal election call. A jointly-released paper from B.C., Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba called Untapped Potential: Driving Canadian Prosperity Through Natural Resources characterizes a critical choice facing the next federal government: continue with policies that limit investment, development and growth, or create a competitive environment that allows the resource sector to thrive. The report emphasizes the critical role of Canada’s natural resource sectors – oil and gas, mining, forestry, agriculture, and aquaculture – in driving economic growth. Despite Canada’s rich resource base, the country has failed to capitalize on its natural advantages due to restrictive regulations, inefficient approval processes, and lack of policy support. The report calls for strategic policy changes to enhance competitiveness, attract investment, and promote sustainable development. Canada’s natural resources sector is a cornerstone of its economy, contributing significantly to GDP, employment, and exports. In 2023, the sector added $464 billion to real GDP, representing 21% of the national total, and supported 3 million jobs, accounting for 15% of employment. Notably, wages in this sector were $25,000 above the national average, and its productivity was 2.5 times greater than that of the